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Explore by:SectionsQuestionsRobotsPart 1 – We Were Promised RosieFrom Babybots to HumanoidsThe Helper Robots of Our Sci-Fi DreamsWhere’s My Robot?Part 2 – The Robot Race Is OnAn Exciting Time for RoboticsThe Top Humanoid RobotsThey Work Hard, They Play HardAI: Fuel for the Robot ExplosionPart 3 – Time for Some Robot HistoryRoomba Roams in Millions of HomesThe Evolution of AsimoWhy Build Robots That Resemble People?Part 4 – The Uncanny ValleyThat’s Creepy!Entering the Uncanny ValleyThe Uncanny Valley ChartPart 5 – Robot HardwareThe Challenges of Building HumanoidsSensors, Computers, BatteriesThe Problem With ActuatorsPart 6 – AI for Robots The Software SideEnter AIAI Models for RobotsPart 7 – The Future of RobotsAre the Robots Coming?The Nothing’s-Changed ScenarioNot the Robots From the MoviesOur New AI Robots Are the BestCreditsIEEE Spectrum TeamMore RobotsTo Probe FurtherPhoto & Video CreditsHumanoid RobotsWhat are today’s most advanced humanoid robots?Why do we try to make robots that resemble people?What are humanoid robots used for?What types of jobs are humanoids best suited for?What are the top humanoid robot companies?Is Tesla building a humanoid robot?What is the most famous humanoid robot?Are today’s humanoids safe for our homes?Robot HistoryWhat lessons can robot makers learn from Roomba?When did Honda start developing Asimo?How has Asimo evolved?When and why did Honda retire Asimo?Creepy RobotsWhat is an example of a lifelike humanoid?What is the Uncanny Valley?Who came up with the Uncanny Valley idea?What is the Uncanny Valley chart?What is the Uncanny Valley used for in robotics?Robot HardwareWhat hardware does a typical humanoid require?How are sensors used in a robot?How are computers used in a robot?How are batteries used in a robot?How are actuators used in a robot?What is the problem with current robot actuators?How many actuators does a humanoid need?How could we make actuators better?Robots and AIWhat is one of the hardest problems in robotics?What is the goal of a robot learning algorithm?Why has generative AI electrified robotics?What is the first step to develop AI for robots?Can you train AI models in simulation?Can AI finally “solve” robot learning?What could a general-purpose AI model for robots do?The Future of RobotsWhere will humanoids be used first?Should we worry about a robot uprising like in movies?Can we predict when humanoids will be in our homes?If not humanoids, what robots could help with housework?Robots (in alphabetical order)Aila showing its componentsAlbert Hubo greeting peopleAMBIDEX interacting with people and objectsApollo making juiceApollo carrying boxesArmar holding a power drillAsimo daydreamingAsimo running, hopping, and kicking a ballAsimo taking a bowAsimo balancing on one footAsimo waving goodbyeAsimo evolving from E and P seriesAstro facing forwardAstro spinning aroundAstro looking at a dogAtlas carrying plastic engine coversAtlas demonstrating its flexibilityAtlas doing push-upsAtlas HD dancingAtlas HD jumping over an obstacleAtlas HD doing backflipsAtlas HD stumbling and fallingAtlas HD jumping and carrying objectsAtlas HD bumping into objects and fallingDARPA competition robots fallingDigit working in a warehouseDigit carrying binsDigit waving hiDigit navigating and finding binsDigit removing a tray from the ovenE Series learning to walkEve opening doorsEve standing and smilingEveryday Robot grasping toysFalcon 9 landingFigure 01 using a coffeemakerFigure 02 handling factory partsFigure 02 moving its handsGeminoid HI-1 sitting next to Hiroshi IshiguroG1 manipulating a stickG1 cracking a walnutG1 holding a frying panG1 runningG1 showing off its flexibilityGR-1 standing upHand Arm System showing its cable systemHRP-2 falling backwardsH1 getting kickediCub crawlingNadia boxingNeo picking up a backpackNeo grabbing a shirt from a rackNeo unloading a dishwasherOptimus dancingOptimus stretchingOptimus training with teleoperationPhoenix grasping cupsPhoenix showing its head sensorsPhoenix making a sandwichπ0 assembling boxesπ0 folding clothesπ0 doing laundryRoomba (first model) vacuuming a carpetRoomba vacuuming popcornRoomba vacuuming granolaRoomba going over thick carpetRoomba and catRosie preparing a snackRosie boiling sausagesStretch stretching its armStretch serving a drinkStretch cleaning the kitchenStretch dog sittingGroups of Robots (in order of appearance)Robot collage: today’s top humanoidsRobot cards: Apollo, Atlas, Digit, Figure, GR-1, H1, Neo, Tesla Robot Optimus, and PhoenixCreepy collage: lifelike humanoidsUncanny Valley chart: Kuka, Asimo, and Albert HuboAI simulation: Apollo, H1, and Digit learning to walkSci-Fi Robots (in order of appearance)T-800 from “The Terminator”Andrew from “Bicentennial Man”Robot from “Sunny”Humanoid from “Robot & Frank”Rosie from “The Jetsons”C-3PO and R2-D2 from “Star Wars”Instead we got Roomba.
Robotics

Feature

Where’s My
Robot?Here’s how we could finally build humanoid robots that do all our domestic chores
By
Erico Guizzo
&
Randi Klett11 Nov 2024Updated 18 Nov 202412 MIN READ3
This article is part of IEEE Spectrum’s “Reinventing Invention” special issue →
Click to see the evolution of AsimoThanks for scrolling!Concept & Text/MediaErico Guizzo & Randi KlettDevelopmentErico Guizzo & Erik VrielinkAdditional ReportingEvan AckermanSpecial Issue EditorEliza StricklandExecutive EditorJean KumagaiCreative DirectorMark MontgomeryEditor in ChiefHarry GoldsteinSpecial ThanksTo all robot makers and researchers who kindly helped us with information and materials, and allowed us to feature their amazing projects here.More Robots
Learn more about the robots and technologies featured in this story, most of which you can find on
IEEE Spectrum’s Robots Guide. In order of appearance: iCub, Atlas HD, Atlas, Nadia, G1, Florian, Hercules, Johnny 05, Roomba, Digit, Optimus, Valkyrie, Walker S1, T-HR3, Neo, Phoenix, Apollo, GR-1, H1, Figure 02, Gitai G1, Everyday Robot, π0/Physical Intelligence, Falcon 9, Rosie, Asimo, E Series, Armar, Geminoid HI-1, Albert Hubo, Philip K. Dick, Sophia, Ameca, Han, EXRobots, CB2, Telenoid, Erica, Titan, Aila, ROBOTIS Dynamixel-Y, Maxon HEJ 90-48-140, AMBIDEX, Hand Arm System, Eve, Robotiq, HRP-2, Open X-Embodiment Project, NVIDIA Project GR00T, Figure 01, Astro, Stretch.
To Probe FurtherThis story is part of IEEE Spectrum’s “Reinventing Invention” special issue, in which we highlight both the creative act and the grindingly hard engineering work required to turn an idea into something world changing. As Spectrum celebrates 60 years of publication this year, we take you behind the scenes of some awe-inspiring projects to reveal how technology is being made—and remade—in our time.For a complete picture of state-of-the-art humanoid robotics today and the companies competing to build the best bot, see this feature article by Spectrum robotics editor Evan Ackerman: “Humanoid Robots Are Getting to Work.”University of California, Berkeley, roboticist Ken Goldberg delivers an insightful TED Talk about the science and engineering challenges of bringing humanoid helpers into the real world: “Why don’t we have better robots yet?”In this excellent “Huge If True” episode, Cleo Abram reveals how Boston Dynamics’ Atlas robot works, and the challenges it and other robots face to break free from their lab confines: “I Challenged Boston Dynamics’ Famous Atlas Robot.”Sci-fi robots have long captured our imaginations. Featured in this story, T-800 from “The Terminator” (1984), the android Andrew from “Bicentennial Man” (1999), Rosie from “The Jetsons” (1962–1963), and C-3PO and R2-D2 from “Star Wars” (1977) are all well known. We also feature two lesser-known but fascinating robots: the cheerful domestic bot Sunny from the Apple TV+ show “Sunny,” and the Asimo-look-alike humanoid from the comedy-drama film “Robot & Frank” (2012).For more on creepy robots, read our Uncanny Valley explainer, as well as Masahiro Mori’s original “The Uncanny Valley” essay, which Spectrum published in 2012 as the first English translation authorized by Mori, in collaboration with the IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine. Read also our profile of Japanese roboticist Hiroshi Ishiguro, who has created a series of lifelike robots, including an android copy of himself.Photo & Video CreditsIntroiCub crawling: Alessandro Albert; Atlas HD running: Bob O’Connor; Atlas pushups: Boston Dynamics; Nadia boxing: IHMC; G1 nutcracker: Unitree Robotics; Atlas HD backflipping: Boston Dynamics; Terminator: Pictorial Press/Alamy; Florian, Hercules, Johnny 05 falling: DARPA; Atlas falling: Boston Dynamics; Helper robot with tray: Getty Images; Helper robot dusting: iStock; Bicentennial Man: Columbia Pictures/Maximum Film/Alamy; Sunny: Apple; Robot & Frank: Photo12/Alamy; Rosie: Mary Evans/AF Archive/Everett Collection; Roomba moving: iRobotNew HumanoidsDigit waving: Agility Robotics; Atlas HD acrobatic: Boston Dynamics; Atlas contortionist: Boston DynamicsRobot CollageClockwise from top left: Nadia: IHMC; Valkyrie: NASA; Optimus: Tesla; Atlas: Boston Dynamics; Digit: Agility Robotics; Walker S1: UBTECH; T-HR3: Toyota; Neo: 1X Technologies; Phoenix: Sanctuary AI; Apollo: Apptronik; GR-1: Fourier; H1: Unitree Robotics; Figure 02: Figure; G1: GitaiRobot CardsApollo: Apptronik; Atlas: Boston Dynamics; Digit: Agility Robotics; Figure 02: Figure; GR-1: Fourier; H1: Unitree Robotics; Neo: 1X Technologies; Optimus: Tesla; Phoenix: Sanctuary AINew SkillsNeo backpack: 1X Technologies; Digits warehouse: Agility Robotics; Optimus dancing: Tesla; Optimus yoga: Tesla; G1 getting up: Unitree Robotics; GR-1 getting up: Fourier; Everyday Robot: Open X-Embodiment Collaboration; π0 folding clothes: Physical Intelligence; Phoenix grasping: Sanctuary AI; Phoenix sandwich: Sanctuary AIFactories FirstFigure 02 factory: Figure; Apollo conveyor: Apptronik; Atlas HD mess: Boston Dynamics; Falcon 9 landing: SpaceX; G1 frying pan: Unitree Robotics Robot HistoryRoomba first model: Douglas McFadd/Getty Images; Roomba bottom view: iRobot; Roomba thick carpet: iRobot; Roomba cat: iStock; Roomba nuts: iRobot; Rosie crepes: Kurt Fuchs/CoTeSys; Rosie pretzels: Michael Memminger/CoTeSys; Asimo dreamy: Honda; E Series walking: Honda; Evolution of Asimo: Honda; Asimo demo: Honda; Asimo proud: Honda; Asimo balancing: Honda; Asimo bye: Honda; Armar with drill: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology; Neo shirt: 1X TechnologiesUncannyGeminoid HI-1 and human: ATR Hiroshi Ishiguro Laboratories; Creepy heads: Anadolu Agency/Getty Images; Alberto Hubo: Seung-il Ryu/Nur Photo/Getty Images. Uncanny Valley collage: Clockwise from top left: Philip K. Dick: Vaughn Ridley/Sportsfile for Web Summit/Getty Images; Sophia: Sopa Images/Alamy; Ameca: Johannes Simon/Getty Images; Han: Nora Tam/South China Morning Post/Getty Images; EX Robot: Pedro Pardo/AFP/Getty Images; CB2: Yoshikazu Tsuno/AFP/Getty Images; Geminoid HI-5: Osaka University; Telenoid: Osaka University and ATR Hiroshi Ishiguro Laboratories; Erica: JST ERATO ISHIGURO Symbiotic Human-Robot Interaction Project. Uncanny Valley chart: Titan: Kuka; Asimo: Honda; Albert Hubo: Seung-il Ryu/Nur Photo/Getty Images; Einstein: Library of CongressRobot HardwareAila: DFKI; Phoenix sensors: Sanctuary AI; Actuator on hand: David Mareuil/Anadolu/Getty Images; Actuator exploded: ROBOTIS; Actuator silver: Maxon; G1 x-ray: Unitree Robotics; H1 kicked: Unitree Robotics; Ambidex demo: Naver Labs; Hand Arm System: DLRRobot SoftwareDigit 3D vision: Agility Robotics; Eve door opening: 1X Technologies; HRP-2 falling back: DARPA; G1 stick: Unitree Robotics; AI collage: Open-X Embodiment Collaboration/Google Deepmind; Optimus training: Tesla; Phoenix sandwich making: Sanctuary AI; GR00T simulation: NVIDIA; Apollo juice teleoperation: Apptronik; π0 robot foundation model: Physical Intelligence; Neo dishwasher: 1X Technologies; Figure 01 coffee maker: Figure; Digit baker: Agility RoboticsFuturesEve with maker: 1X Technologies; Figure 02 fingers: Figure; Astro looking: Amazon; Astro spinning: Amazon; Astro and dog: Amazon; Atlas HD dance: Boston Dynamics; Digits with bins: Agility Robotics; Stretch stretched: Hello Robot; Stretch serving drink: Hello Robot; π0 laundry: Physical Intelligence; Stretch kitchen: Hello Robot; Stretch dogs: Hello Robot; Atlas working: Boston Dynamics; Helper robot cooking: iStock; Helper robot dishwashing and ironing: Getty Images; Three Rosies: Mary Evans/AF Archive/Everett CollectionCreditsRoomba: iRobot; C-3PO: Vince Bucci/Getty Images; R2-D2: Collection Christophel/AlamyWhere’s My Robot?Here’s how we could finally build humanoid robots that do all our domestic choresBy Erico Guizzo & Randi KlettPublished 11/11/2024 - Updated 11/18/2024This is a non-interactive version of our story “Where’s My Robot?” — it includes all text, images, and videos (note that videos have no audio).This story is part of IEEE Spectrum’s “Reinventing Invention” special issue.See the interactive version on our site by using a browser with JavaScript enabled →A new generation of advanced AI-powered humanoid robots that includes Neo from 1X Technologies, Apollo from Apptronik, Figure 02 from Figure AI, Phoenix from Sanctuary AI, Optimus from Tesla, and Atlas from Boston Dynamics is bringing us closer to the home robot helpers of our sci-fi dreams. What breakthroughs in AI and robot hardware could finally turn an autonomous robot assistant that do all our domestic chores, like Rosie from The Jetsons, into reality?IEEE SpectrumExplore by...SectionsPart 1 – We Were Promised RosieFrom Babybots to HumanoidsThe Helper Robots of Our Sci-Fi DreamsWhere’s My Robot?Part 2 – The Robot Race Is OnAn Exciting Time for RoboticsThe Top Humanoid RobotsThey Work Hard, They Play HardAI: Fuel for the Robot ExplosionPart 3 – Time for Some Robot HistoryRoomba Roams in Millions of HomesThe Evolution of AsimoWhy Build Robots That Resemble People?Part 4 – The Uncanny ValleyThat’s Creepy!Entering the Uncanny ValleyThe Uncanny Valley ChartPart 5 – Robot HardwareThe Challenges of Building HumanoidsSensors, Computers, BatteriesThe Problem With ActuatorsPart 6 – AI for Robots The Software SideEnter AIAI Models for RobotsPart 7 – The Future of RobotsAre the Robots Coming?The Nothing’s-Changed ScenarioNot the Robots From the MoviesOur New AI Robots Are the BestCreditsIEEE Spectrum TeamMore RobotsTo Probe FurtherPhoto & Video CreditsQuestionsHumanoid RobotsWhat are today’s most advanced humanoid robots?Why do we try to make robots that resemble people?What are humanoid robots used for?What types of jobs are humanoids best suited for?What are the top humanoid robot companies?Is Tesla building a humanoid robot?What is the most famous humanoid robot?Are today’s humanoids safe for our homes?Robot HistoryWhat lessons can robot makers learn from Roomba?When did Honda start developing Asimo?How has Asimo evolved?When and why did Honda retire Asimo?Creepy RobotsWhat is an example of a lifelike humanoid?What is the Uncanny Valley?Who came up with the Uncanny Valley idea?What is the Uncanny Valley chart?What is the Uncanny Valley used for in robotics?Robot HardwareWhat hardware does a typical humanoid require?How are sensors used in a robot?How are computers used in a robot?How are batteries used in a robot?How are actuators used in a robot?What is the problem with current robot actuators?How many actuators does a humanoid need?How could we make actuators better?Robots and AIWhat is one of the hardest problems in robotics?What is the goal of a robot learning algorithm?Why has generative AI electrified robotics?What is the first step to develop AI for robots?Can you train AI models in simulation?Can AI finally “solve” robot learning?What could a general-purpose AI model for robots do?The Future of RobotsWhere will humanoids be used first?Should we worry about a robot uprising like in movies?Can we predict when humanoids will be in our homes?If not humanoids, what robots could help with housework?RobotsRobots (in alphabetical order)Aila showing its componentsAlbert Hubo greeting peopleAMBIDEX interacting with people and objectsApollo making juiceApollo carrying boxesArmar holding a power drillAsimo daydreamingAsimo running, hopping, and kicking a ballAsimo taking a bowAsimo balancing on one footAsimo waving goodbyeAsimo evolving from E and P seriesAstro facing forwardAstro spinning aroundAstro looking at a dogAtlas carrying plastic engine coversAtlas demonstrating its flexibilityAtlas doing push-upsAtlas HD dancingAtlas HD jumping over an obstacleAtlas HD doing backflipsAtlas HD stumbling and fallingAtlas HD jumping and carrying objectsAtlas HD bumping into objects and fallingDARPA competition robots fallingDigit working in a warehouseDigit carrying binsDigit waving hiDigit navigating and finding binsDigit removing a tray from the ovenE Series learning to walkEve opening doorsEve standing and smilingEveryday Robot grasping toysFalcon 9 landingFigure 01 using a coffeemakerFigure 02 handling factory partsFigure 02 moving its handsGeminoid HI-1 sitting next to Hiroshi IshiguroG1 manipulating a stickG1 cracking a walnutG1 holding a frying panG1 runningG1 showing off its flexibilityGR-1 standing upHand Arm System showing its cable systemHRP-2 falling backwardsH1 getting kickediCub crawlingNadia boxingNeo picking up a backpackNeo grabbing a shirt from a rackNeo unloading a dishwasherOptimus dancingOptimus stretchingOptimus training with teleoperationPhoenix grasping cupsPhoenix showing its head sensorsPhoenix making a sandwichπ0 assembling boxesπ0 folding clothesπ0 doing laundryRoomba (first model) vacuuming a carpetRoomba vacuuming popcornRoomba vacuuming granolaRoomba going over thick carpetRoomba and catRosie preparing a snackRosie boiling sausagesStretch stretching its armStretch serving a drinkStretch cleaning the kitchenStretch dog sittingGroups of Robots (in order of appearance)Robot collage: today’s top humanoidsRobot cards: Apollo, Atlas, Digit, Figure, GR-1, H1, Neo, Tesla Robot Optimus, and PhoenixCreepy collage: lifelike humanoidsUncanny Valley chart: Kuka, Asimo, and Albert HuboAI simulation: Apollo, H1, and Digit learning to walkSci-Fi Robots (in order of appearance)T-800 from “The Terminator”Andrew from “Bicentennial Man”Robot from “Sunny”Humanoid from “Robot & Frank”Rosie from “The Jetsons”C-3PO and R2-D2 from “Star Wars”Part 1 – We Were Promised RosieRobots are getting more and more advanced.
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The robot baby iCub learns to crawl on the floor.ICUB (ITALIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY)From crawling baby bots to agile humanoids.
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Humanoid robot Atlas HD can run and jump over obstacles.ATLAS HD (BOSTON DYNAMICS)Some people worry robots could maybe get a little too advanced…
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The latest version of Atlas can do push-ups; another humanoid, Nadia, practices its boxing skills under teleoperation; the robot G1 cracks a walnut with its fist; and two Atlas HD robots perform two backflips in a row.ATLAS/ATLAS HD (BOSTON DYNAMICS); NADIA (IHMC); G1 (UNITREE ROBOTICS)…and try to take over like in sci-fi movies.T-800 from The Terminator movie.“THE TERMINATOR” (1984)The reality is robots still need a lot of improvement.Before they can rise up, robots need to stop falling down.
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Three robots collapse during the DARPA Robotics Challenge Finals; Atlas HD humanoids stumble and fall down on an obstacle course at Boston Dynamics.FLORIAN (TEAM VIGIR); HERCULES (TRAC LABS); JOHNNY 05 (TEAM HECTOR); ATLAS HD (BOSTON DYNAMICS)So forget the evil robots.Let’s talk about the helper robots we’ve always dreamed of.Household humanoids could do tasks like preparing and serving meals.Robots to help us with chores around the house.Cleaning. Cooking. Organizing.Household humanoids could also do cleaning tasks like dusting surfaces.Even keeping us company.Robin Williams plays the android Andrew in the movie "Bicentennial Man."“BICENTENNIAL MAN” (1999)These robots would give us something of immense value: more free time.Rashida Jones plays an American woman living in Japan with a domestic robot called Sunny in the Apple TV+ show "Sunny."“SUNNY” (2024)They could also help aging individuals remain independent.Frank Langella stars in the sci-fi comedy-drama "Robot & Frank," which features a companion humanoid robot.“ROBOT & FRANK” (2012)We were promised Rosie.Rosie, the household robot helper from "The Jetsons."“THE JETSONS” (1962-1963)Instead we got Roomba.Roomba is known for its disc-shaped design.ROOMBA (IROBOT)So the question is…Where’s My Robot?Part 2 – The Robot Race Is OnFirst the good news: It’s an exciting time for robotics right now.New humanoids are jumping into action at a pace never before seen.
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Digit waves hi.DIGIT (AGILITY ROBOTICS)One of the most famous is Atlas, the acrobatic humanoid from Boston Dynamics.
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Atlas HD can jump, lift heavy objects, and do backflips.ATLAS HD (BOSTON DYNAMICS)The newest version of Atlas can contort its body in ways you most definitely can’t.
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The new all-electric Atlas has impressive flexibility.ATLAS (BOSTON DYNAMICS)But Atlas has company.Tesla and a host of startups are building impressive new humanoids.The next generation of AI robots is starting a robotics race.CLOCKWISE FROM TOP LEFT: NADIA (IHMC); VALKYRIE (NASA); OPTIMUS (TESLA); ATLAS (BOSTON DYNAMICS); DIGIT (AGILITY ROBOTICS); WALKER S1 (UBTECH); T-HR3 (TOYOTA); NEO (1X TECHNOLOGIES); PHOENIX (SANCTUARY AI); APOLLO (APPTRONIK); GR-1 (FOURIER); H1 (UNITREE ROBOTICS); FIGURE 02 (FIGURE); G1 (GITAI)The robot race is on. Check out some of the contenders.Who's Going to Build the Best Robot?ApolloApptronikApptronik has worked on more than half a dozen humanoid robots over the past eight years, including NASA’s Valkyrie. Apollo is the culmination of all this experience and is designed for manufacturability. The company plans to release the robot commercially following a series of pilot projects to demonstrate its autonomous skills.ApptronikAtlasBoston DynamicsBoston Dynamics is known for its highly agile robots. The company, acquired by Hyundai in 2020, has recently unveiled a new fully-electric Atlas humanoid. Unlike previous generations, it doesn't rely on hydraulics and is lighter and more compact, while also being able to move and bend its body in ways that exceed human capabilities.Boston DynamicsDigitAgility RoboticsCreated by Agility Robotics, Digit is most accurately described as “bipedal” rather than “humanoid.” It has two legs, but its legs look more like those of an ostrich rather than a human’s. This is a side effect of Agility’s design process, the goal of which was to maximize the efficiency and robustness of legged locomotion.Agility RoboticsFigure 02FigureFounded in 2022, Figure has a very experienced team, which traces its heritage back through the DARPA Robotics Challenge. By iterating very quickly through hardware prototypes, Figure expects to demonstrate commercial viability in real-world use cases, and scale from there to “integrate humanoids into the labor force.”FigureGR-1Fourier IntelligenceSingapore-based Fourier Intelligence is already mass-producing its GR-1 and GR-2 humanoids. The company’ background is in health-care robotics, and it sees potential applications in medical and rehabilitation contexts, with the robots also available to researchers seeking a humanoid development platform.Fourier IntelligenceH1Unitree RoboticsUnitree, founded in China in 2016, is well known for its capable and low-cost quadruped robots. H1 was Unitree’s first humanoid, and the company has already introduced a new, smaller model, the G1. Both are designed to be affordable platforms for research, or for companies focused on developing software rather than hardware.Unitree RoboticsNeo1X Technologies1X’s soft, tendon-based robot Neo is designed to have very low inertia, with the goal of building a robot that’s safe for humans to be around. The robot will weigh just 30 kilograms, with a carrying capacity of up to 20 kg. 1X, backed by OpenAI, hopes that Neo will become “an all-purpose android assistant to your daily life.”1X TechnologiesOptimusTeslaTesla has a few unique advantages when it comes to building and deploying robots. The company has substantial experience in battery technology, as well as in advanced sensing, computing, and AI for mobile systems. And Tesla is potentially its own first customer for humanoids, finding work for them in its car factories.TeslaPhoenixSanctuary AISanctuary AI’s goal is to “create the world’s first humanlike intelligence in general-purpose robots.” The company has been collecting extensive amounts of data of humans teleoperating its robots through complex manipulation tasks. Sanctuary AI hopes to leverage that data to train its robots to perform those tasks autonomously.Sanctuary AINew Humanoids, New SkillsThese robots are learning a lot of new skills.
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Neo can lift an object like a backpack and hand it to a person.NEO (1X TECHNOLOGIES)They work hard.
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Digit was put to work carrying bins in a warehouse.DIGIT (AGILITY ROBOTICS)They play hard.
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Optimus robots from Tesla display their dance moves.OPTIMI (TESLA)And they are constantly trying to outdo each other.
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Optimus, G1, and GR-1 show off their flexibility.OPTIMUS (TESLA); G1 (UNITREE ROBOTICS); GR-1 (FOURIER)Adding fuel to this robot explosion is AI.Some believe that the current artificial intelligence boom will propel robots too.AI could help robots learn tasks that have proved difficult for them like grasping arbitrary objects.OPEN X-EMBODIMENT COLLABORATIONAI could finally solve the hardest problems in robotics—such as performing complex and dexterous tasks.
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This two-armed robot powered by AI created by Physical Intelligence can fold clothing autonomously.π0 (PHYSICAL INTELLIGENCE)These problems have largely kept humanoids confined to labs as experiments.
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Phoenix can grasp cups of different shapes, sizes, and materials.PHOENIX (SANCTUARY AI)The recent wave of AI breakthroughs gave us ChatGPT.Next, will it teach robots how to make you a sandwich?AI could finally teach robots useful tasks — like making a sandwich.PHOENIX (SANCTUARY AI)Now for the bad news about this fresh batch of bots.They’re not headed straight for your home.They’ll first be found in factories and warehouses.
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Figure 02 robots working at a car factory.FIGURE 02 (FIGURE AI)That’s because they are best suited for dirty, dull, and dangerous jobs—jobs you find in an industrial setting, not in our homes.Humanoid robot Apollo can lift and carry boxes from one place to another.APOLLO (APPTRONIK)These robots are still too complex, too costly, and too unsafe for home use.You definitely don’t want one of them staggering in your kitchen.
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Atlas HD accidentally crashes into objects and falls down.ATLAS HD (BOSTON DYNAMICS)So in an era of promising breakthroughs in…autonomous vehicles, planetary exploration, quantum computers, reusable rockets, fusion reactors, drug discovery, and more…
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Rockets can be robots, too.FALCON 9 (SPACEX)What makes it so hard to invent a robot butler?
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G1 can perform dynamic tasks like tossing food with a frying pan.G1 (UNITREE ROBOTICS)Why, so glad you asked!Time for some robot history.Part 3 – Time for Some Robot HistoryRoomba first hit stores more than 20 years ago.Now it roams in millions of homes around the world.iRobot's first Roomba model was introduced in September 2002.ROOMBA (IROBOT)Take a minute to appreciate what an incredible feat of engineering that is.Roomba sucks at its job — but that's a good thing!ROOMBA (IROBOT)You see, a home is a treacherous place if you’re a lowly little disk on the floor.Thick rugs. Power cords. Staircases.Roomba can conquer almost any carpet.ROOMBA (IROBOT)Not to mention…pets.Cats and robots can be best friends.Everywhere Roomba goes there’s a trap lurking.And it’s just sucking dirt.Roomba can vacuum up even large debris like cereal and nuts off the floor.ROOMBA (IROBOT)Now picture a humanoid stepping into your kitchen to make you a snack.The number of hazards just ballooned by orders of magnitude.German humanoid robot Rosie demonstrates its cooking skills.ROSIE (TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY MUNICH/COTESYS)Uneven surfaces, slippery objects, hard-to-reach spaces, clutter—one small mishap and you end up with a big mess and no food.Rosie prepares pretzels and sausages.ROSIE (TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY MUNICH/COTESYS)Humanoid robots are indeed maddeningly complex machines.Just look at Asimo, one of the most ambitious humanoid projects ever.Asimo daydreaming.ASIMO (HONDA)Japanese automaker Honda developed the first prototypes in the 1980s.It took decades and vast sums to turn Asimo into a skilled humanoid.
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The legged robots in Honda's E Series were the precursors to its full-body humanoids.E SERIES (HONDA)The Evolution of AsimoHonda's humanoid efforts started with the E series of bipedal robots in the late 1980s, advanced through the 1990s with the P series, and culminated with its most advanced full-body humanoid, Asimo, in the 2000s.E SERIES, P SERIES, ASIMO (HONDA)In a 2011 demo, Asimo danced, walked over uneven terrain, and ran in circles.It also climbed stairs, hopped on one foot, and kicked a ball.
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Asimo was able to perform an impressive variety of tasks.ASIMO (HONDA)But the flawless performance belied a more underwhelming reality: Asimo’s actions needed to be pre-choreographed.Bravo, Asimo!ASIMO (HONDA)Any changes in the environment risked throwing off its routine.Asimo could stand and even hop on one foot, using its arms for balance.ASIMO (HONDA)In 2022, Honda forced the robot into retirement.Poor Asimo wasn’t ready for the real world.Goodbye, Asimo!ASIMO (HONDA)If building a humanoid is so much trouble, it’s fair to ask: Why make robots that resemble people anyway?Proponents say such robots can operate in human spaces and use human tools.That means we don’t have to remake our world to suit them.German humanoid robot Armar can use human tools like a power drill.ARMAR (KARLSRUHE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY)It also means robots can work alongside and collaborate with us.
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Neo can help you choose a shirt.NEO (1X TECHNOLOGIES)That’s all well and good, but it doesn’t answer another question: Why are some humanoids designed to look exactly like humans?Japanese roboticist Hiroshi Ishiguro next to his android copy Geminoid HI-1.GEMINOID HI-1 (OSAKA UNIVERSITY)That’s creepy!It's difficult to build very realistic androids because any imperfections can make the robots appear "creepy."It turns out creepy robots are a fascinating topic.Surely you want to know more about it!Albert Hubo features a robotic body topped with an Einstein head.ALBERT HUBO (KAIST/HANSON ROBOTICS)Buckle up for a detour into the Uncanny Valley.Part 4 – The Uncanny ValleyYou are now entering the Uncanny Valley.The creepy feeling you may get when you see a really humanlike robot—that’s the Uncanny Valley phenomenon in action.It was proposed by Japanese roboticist Masahiro Mori in 1970.Lifelike androids like CB2, Telenoid, and Geminoid HI-5 are used for research in human-robot interaction. Other robots, like Ameca from Engineered Arts, are used in entertainment, exhibitions, and presentations.CLOCKWISE FROM TOP LEFT: PHILIP K. DICK (HANSON ROBOTICS); SOPHIA (HANSON ROBOTICS); AMECA (ENGINEERED ARTS); HAN (HANSON ROBOTICS); WOMAN (EX ROBOT); CB2 (OSAKA UNIVERSITY); GEMINOID HI-5 (OSAKA UNIVERSITY); TELENOID (OSAKA UNIVERSITY/ATR ISHIGURO LAB); ERICA (JST ERATO ISHIGURO)The Uncanny Valley ChartMori-san conceived this clever chart to convey his idea.Let’s look first at an industrial robot arm.Your reaction to its appearance is likely neither positive nor negative.Now consider a cute humanoid robot.It can elicit a more positive response because it begins to resemble people.A human being produces a maximum positive response according to Mori’s chart.That’s because evolution made humans really good at recognizing other humans.But our reaction plunges into negative territory if we see a creepy robot.If it’s not perfectly lifelike, it may resemble a human corpse or a zombie!That creepy zone is the Uncanny Valley.This illustration shows a simplified version of the original chart that Japanese roboticist Masahiro Mori presented in his 1970 article on the Uncanny Valley.The Uncanny Valley is a conjecture, not scientific fact.Still, roboticists find it helpful when exploring humanoid design.Some think that ultrarealistic androids are best for interacting with people.Others avoid lifelike robots—they don’t want to risk “falling” into the valley.All right, let’s get out of here.Part 5 – Robot HardwareLet’s get back to the challenges of building humanoids.It comes down to two things: hardware and software.Who's going to build the best robot?CLOCKWISE FROM TOP LEFT: NADIA (IHMC); VALKYRIE (NASA); OPTIMUS (TESLA); ATLAS (BOSTON DYNAMICS); DIGIT (AGILITY ROBOTICS); WALKER S1 (UBTECH); T-HR3 (TOYOTA); NEO (1X TECHNOLOGIES); PHOENIX (SANCTUARY AI); APOLLO (APPTRONIK); GR-1 (FOURIER); H1 (UNITREE ROBOTICS); FIGURE 02 (FIGURE); G1 (GITAI)First, consider the hardware a typical humanoid requires.Aila is an advanced humanoid built by German researchers.AILA (DFKI ROBOTICS INNOVATION CENTER)Sensors like cameras and 3D vision modules survey the robot’s environment.Aila has two cameras in its head, and a torso with a short-range laser scanner and 3D time-of-flight camera.AILA (DFKI ROBOTICS INNOVATION CENTER)Computers collect the sensor inputs and determine what the robot should do.Hidden in Aila's belly is a computer running Linux and the Robot Operating System (ROS).AILA (DFKI ROBOTICS INNOVATION CENTER)Batteries supply power so the robot operates without a clumsy cord.Aila's battery packs are in the back.AILA (DFKI ROBOTICS INNOVATION CENTER)Actuators—electrical motors—make the robot move.Aila uses 14 brushless DC motors for its arms, four linear DC motors for its torso, and two servo motors for the head, plus additional motors for its mobile base.AILA (DFKI ROBOTICS INNOVATION CENTER)The first three—sensors, computers, and batteries—are capable enough.They keep getting better thanks to Moore’s Law and new battery innovations.Phoenix has multiple cameras in its head.PHOENIX (SANCTUARY AI)But actuators have lagged behind.No fundamental breakthroughs have improved them on a similar scale.Actuators are typically cylindrical devices, with a metal frame and rotating shaft at its center.The most advanced actuators consist of a DC motor coupled to a gearbox.Inside there are also sensors and power electronics.An advanced actuator packs many components, including a brushless DC motor, position encoders, and a reduction gear system.DYNAMIXEL-Y (ROBOTIS)These actuators are powerful and accurate, thanks to precision-machined parts.Maxon makes some of the most popular robot motors, with the company's devices used in a variety of applications, including research humanoids, soccer-playing mobile robots, and Mars rovers.HEJ 90-48-140 (MAXON)The challenge is that they are complex, bulky, and expensive.And a humanoid may require 20 or more of them.Every active degree of motion in a robot's body requires an actuator.G1 (UNITREE ROBOTICS)Some robot makers are trying to up their actuator game.They are making compact actuators that are strong and robust against, er, impacts.
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Getting kicked is part of H1's balance and robustness testing.H1 (UNITREE ROBOTICS)Others are testing direct-drive-type motors, which do away with gears.Or cable-driven actuators, which are lighter and safer.
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AMBIDEX is a cable-driven robot that can give you a high-five and won't break your hand.AMBIDEX (NAVER LABS)Other alternatives may emerge by seeking novel bioinspired designs.One way or another, robot actuators are in need of a radical reinvention.This hand uses thin cables to actuate its finger joints.HAND ARM SYSTEM (DLR)Part 6 – AI for RobotsNext, let’s look at the software side of things.Vision, navigation, control—so many components need to work together.
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How Digit sees and navigates the world.DIGIT (AGILITY ROBOTICS)Consider, in particular, robot learning algorithms.The goal is learning a task—like opening a door—under varying conditions.
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Eve is learning to open different kinds of doors.EVE (1X TECHNOLOGIES)But what if your robot encounters a new type of door and it doesn’t know what to do?We need robots to learn like we do—humans adapt, correct, and improvise.
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Japanese robot HRP-2 suffered a malfunction, shutting down and falling backwards, while facing a closed door at the DARPA Robotics Challenge Finals.HRP-2 (AIST-NEDO)Enter AI.Robotics and artificial intelligence have long evolved hand in hand.
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G1 learned this skill using AI and simulation.G1 (UNITREE ROBOTICS)So it’s no surprise that the rise of generative AI has electrified the robotics industry.The hope is that AI could finally unlock the power of robot learning.Google Deepmind researchers and their collaborators are using AI to train robot arms to perform a variety of grasping and manipulation tasks.OPEN X-EMBODIMENT (GOOGLE DEEPMIND)As with most AI systems, the first step is amassing lots of training data.One method involves humans teleoperating robots to perform various tasks.
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Humans performing tasks while equipped with VR gear and wearable sensors generate AI-training data that can be used to teach robots to perform those tasks autonomously.OPTIMUS (TESLA)Like making a sandwich.
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Phoenix robot, controlled by a human teleoperator, attempts to assemble a sandwich.PHOENIX (SANCTUARY AI)Next you use the data to train an AI model, and then test it on a real robot.Training can also happen in a virtual environment with simulated robots.
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Virtual robots learn to walk and climb in AI-powered simulations as part of Nvidia's Project Gr00t, which focuses on AI for robotics.PROJECT GR00T (NVIDIA)It’s unclear if AI can finally “solve” robot learning.For one thing, training robots one task at a time is a very slow process.
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A human operator remote controls the Apollo humanoid to make juice.APOLLO (APPTRONIK)One way to speed things up is to develop a general-purpose AI model for robots.A single model would let you perform a variety of tasks on a variety of robots.
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A general-purpose robot model, trained on a large robot interaction dataset, would be able to control many different robots to perform many different tasks.π0 (PHYSICAL INTELLIGENCE)Getting this data and training the models will take a lot of time and money.But if it works, AI robots may finally be ready for the real world.
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Neo unloads glasses from a dishwasher; Figure 01 operates a coffeemaker; and Digit removes a tray from a kitchen oven.NEO (1X TECHNOLOGIES); FIGURE 01 (FIGURE); DIGIT (AGILITY ROBOTICS)Part 7 – The Future of RobotsWhere does that leave us? Are the robots coming or what?We don’t know for sure how robots will evolve.So let’s explore three possible futures.Eve stands next to 1X Technologies founder and CEO Bernt Bornich.EVE (1X TECHNOLOGIES)Each assumes a different level of technological progress.And each imagines how robots may become part of our lives.
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Figure 02 contemplates its own advanced hands.FIGURE 02 (FIGURE)FUTURE 1: Small advances in robot hardware and softwareActuators are still chunky and pricey, and robot learning algorithms remain stuck.Amazon's Astro is a home robot that can drive around, play music, and record video.ASTRO (AMAZON)Sorry, don’t expect Rosie to show up at your home.But you can get a little robot buddy like this one from Amazon.Astro can create a 3D map of your home and navigate autonomously.ASTRO (AMAZON)It roams around your house taking photos of your pet.You can remotely connect to your Astro to check in on your pets.ASTRO (AMAZON)As for humanoids, they find employment in factories and warehouses.Digit robots never get tired of moving bins in a warehouse.DIGIT (AGILITY ROBOTICS)Except for Atlas, who becomes the first YouTube robo-influencer.
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This robot's dance repertoire is quite large.ATLAS HD (BOSTON DYNAMICS)FUTURE 2: Moderate advances in robot hardware and softwareNew designs improve actuators, and AI makes robot learning more practical.Stretch's arm stretches so the robot can reach objects on tables, shelves, and countertops.STRETCH (HELLO ROBOT)We’re moving out of lab-demo territory, and robots can finally do useful tasks.These aren’t the general-purpose humanoids from the movies, though.Stretch uses a simple robotic gripper to grasp household items.STRETCH (HELLO ROBOT)These handy bots are known as mobile manipulators.They do your laundry and clean your kitchen.
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This two-armed mobile robot from Physical Intelligence can empty a dryer and fold clothing fully autonomously; the Stretch robot from Hello Robot, under teleoperation, can wipe a kitchen counter and load a dishwasher.π0 (PHYSICAL INTELLIGENCE); STRETCH (HELLO ROBOT)They can even take care of your pets for you. What more would you want? Pfft, a sandwich?!
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Stretch, under teleoperation, feeds a treat to a dog, and opens the door to let another dog in.STRETCH (HELLO ROBOT)And the humanoids? They’re still toiling in factories and warehouses.
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Humanoid robot Atlas moves plastic engine covers from one storage cart to another fully autonomously.ATLAS (BOSTON DYNAMICS)FUTURE 3: Massive advances in robot hardware and softwareBig breakthroughs boost actuation and robot learning beyond expectations.Future humanoid robots will need fine motor skills and adaptability to handle cooking utensils, pots and pans, and ingredients.At last the future we’ve been waiting for.The first generation of robot helpers is now ready for our homes.Tomorrow's robot helpers will also need to adapt to various household settings, such as different layouts, furniture, and appliances.Yikes, these droids are pricey! You need a robot lease and robot insurance.(Who knew robots would be just like cars!)These robots will have to be extremely safe when operating and navigating in our homes, especially when performing tasks involving heat, chemicals, or sharp objects.But what can we say?Our new AI robots are the best. They do the chores. They take care of things.Sit back and relax while Rosie makes you a sandwich.If the right breakthroughs in AI and robot hardware materialize, a friendly robot helper like Rosie from The Jetsons could one day become part of our lives, helping out with our chores, and more.“THE JETSONS” (1962-1963)CreditsConcept & Text/MediaErico Guizzo & Randi KlettDevelopmentErico Guizzo & Erik VrielinkAdditional ReportingEvan AckermanSpecial Issue EditorEliza StricklandExecutive EditorJean KumagaiCreative DirectorMark MontgomeryEditor in ChiefHarry GoldsteinSpecial ThanksTo all robot makers and researchers who kindly helped us with information and materials, and allowed us to feature their amazing projects here.C-3PO humanoid robot and R2-D2 droid from Star Wars.STAR WARS (1977)More RobotsLearn more about the robots and technologies featured in this story, most of which you can find on IEEE Spectrum’s Robots Guide. In order of appearance: iCub, Atlas HD, Atlas, Nadia, G1, Florian, Hercules, Johnny 05, Roomba, Digit, Optimus, Valkyrie, Walker S1, T-HR3, Neo, Phoenix, Apollo, GR-1, H1, Figure 02, Gitai G1, Everyday Robot, Falcon 9, Rosie, Asimo, E Series, Armar, Geminoid HI-1, Albert Hubo, Philip K. Dick, Sophia, Ameca, Han, EXRobots, CB2, Telenoid, Erica, Titan, Aila, ROBOTIS Dynamixel-Y, Maxon HEJ 90-48-140, AMBIDEX, Hand Arm System, Eve, Robotiq, HRP-2, Open X-Embodiment Project, NVIDIA Project GR00T, Figure 01, Astro, Stretch.
To Probe FurtherThis story is part of IEEE Spectrum’s “Reinventing Invention” special issue, in which we highlight both the creative act and the grindingly hard engineering work required to turn an idea into something world changing. As Spectrum celebrates 60 years of publication this year, we take you behind the scenes of some awe-inspiring projects to reveal how technology is being made—and remade—in our time.For a complete picture of state-of-the-art humanoid robotics today and the companies competing to build the best bot, see this feature article by Spectrum robotics editor Evan Ackerman: “Humanoid Robots Are Getting to Work.”University of California, Berkeley, roboticist Ken Goldberg delivers an insightful TED Talk about the science and engineering challenges of bringing humanoid helpers into the real world: “Why don’t we have better robots yet?”In this excellent “Huge If True” episode, Cleo Abram reveals how Boston Dynamics’ Atlas robot works, and the challenges it and other robots face to break free from their lab confines: “I Challenged Boston Dynamics’ Famous Atlas Robot.”Sci-fi robots have long captured our imaginations. Featured in this story, T-800 from “The Terminator” (1984), the android Andrew from “Bicentennial Man” (1999), Rosie from “The Jetsons” (1962–1963), and C-3PO and R2-D2 from “Star Wars” (1977) are all well known. We also feature two lesser-known but fascinating robots: the cheerful domestic bot Sunny from the Apple TV+ show “Sunny,” and the Asimo-look-alike humanoid from the movie “Robot & Frank” (2012).For more on creepy robots, read our Uncanny Valley explainer, as well as Masahiro Mori’s original “The Uncanny Valley” essay, which Spectrum published in 2012 as the first English translation authorized by Mori, in collaboration with the IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine. Read also our profile of Japanese roboticist Hiroshi Ishiguro, who has created a series of lifelike robots, including an android copy of himself.Photo & Video CreditsIntroiCub crawling: Alessandro Albert; Atlas HD running: Bob O’Connor; Atlas pushups: Boston Dynamics; Nadia boxing: IHMC; G1 nutcracker: Unitree Robotics; Atlas HD backflipping: Boston Dynamics; Terminator: Pictorial Press/Alamy; Florian, Hercules, Johnny 05 falling: DARPA; Atlas falling: Boston Dynamics; Helper robot with tray: Getty Images; Helper robot dusting: iStock; Bicentennial Man: Columbia Pictures/Maximum Film/Alamy; Sunny: Apple; Robot & Frank: Photo12/Alamy; Rosie: Mary Evans/AF Archive/Everett Collection; Roomba moving: iRobotNew HumanoidsDigit waving: Agility Robotics; Atlas HD acrobatic: Boston Dynamics; Atlas contortionist: Boston DynamicsRobot CollageClockwise from top left: Nadia: IHMC; Valkyrie: NASA; Optimus: Tesla; Atlas: Boston Dynamics; Digit: Agility Robotics; Walker S1: UBTECH; T-HR3: Toyota; Neo: 1X Technologies; Phoenix: Sanctuary AI; Apollo: Apptronik; GR-1: Fourier; H1: Unitree Robotics; Figure 02: Figure; G1: GitaiRobot CardsApollo: Apptronik; Atlas: Boston Dynamics; Digit: Agility Robotics; Figure 02: Figure; GR-1: Fourier; H1: Unitree Robotics; Neo: 1X Technologies; Optimus: Tesla; Phoenix: Sanctuary AINew SkillsNeo backpack: 1X Technologies; Digits warehouse: Agility Robotics; Optimus dancing: Tesla; Optimus yoga: Tesla; G1 getting up: Unitree Robotics; GR-1 getting up: Fourier; Everyday Robot: Open X-Embodiment Collaboration; π0 folding clothes: Physical Intelligence; Phoenix grasping: Sanctuary AI; Phoenix sandwich: Sanctuary AIFactories FirstFigure 02 factory: Figure; Apollo conveyor: Apptronik; Atlas HD mess: Boston Dynamics; Falcon 9 landing: SpaceX; G1 frying pan: Unitree Robotics Robot HistoryRoomba first model: Douglas McFadd/Getty Images; Roomba bottom view: iRobot; Roomba thick carpet: iRobot; Roomba cat: iStock; Roomba nuts: iRobot; Rosie crepes: Kurt Fuchs/CoTeSys; Rosie pretzels: Michael Memminger/CoTeSys; Asimo dreamy: Honda; E Series walking: Honda; Evolution of Asimo: Honda; Asimo demo: Honda; Asimo proud: Honda; Asimo balancing: Honda; Asimo bye: Honda; Armar with drill: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology; Neo shirt: 1X TechnologiesUncannyGeminoid HI-1 and human: ATR Hiroshi Ishiguro Laboratories; Creepy heads: Anadolu Agency/Getty Images; Alberto Hubo: Seung-il Ryu/Nur Photo/Getty Images. Uncanny Valley collage: Clockwise from top left: Philip K. Dick: Vaughn Ridley/Sportsfile for Web Summit/Getty Images; Sophia: Sopa Images/Alamy; Ameca: Johannes Simon/Getty Images; Han: Nora Tam/South China Morning Post/Getty Images; EX Robot: Pedro Pardo/AFP/Getty Images; CB2: Yoshikazu Tsuno/AFP/Getty Images; Geminoid HI-5: Osaka University; Telenoid: Osaka University and ATR Hiroshi Ishiguro Laboratories; Erica: JST ERATO ISHIGURO Symbiotic Human-Robot Interaction Project. Uncanny Valley chart: Titan: Kuka; Asimo: Honda; Albert Hubo: Seung-il Ryu/Nur Photo/Getty Images; Einstein: Library of CongressRobot HardwareAila: DFKI; Phoenix sensors: Sanctuary AI; Actuator on hand: David Mareuil/Anadolu/Getty Images; Actuator exploded: ROBOTIS; Actuator silver: Maxon; G1 x-ray: Unitree Robotics; H1 kicked: Unitree Robotics; Ambidex demo: Naver Labs; Hand Arm System: DLRRobot SoftwareDigit 3D vision: Agility Robotics; Eve door opening: 1X Technologies; HRP-2 falling back: DARPA; G1 stick: Unitree Robotics; AI collage: Open-X Embodiment Collaboration/Google Deepmind; Optimus training: Tesla; Phoenix sandwich making: Sanctuary AI; GR00T simulation: NVIDIA; Apollo juice teleoperation: Apptronik; π0 robot foundation model: Physical Intelligence; Neo dishwasher: 1X Technologies; Figure 01 coffee maker: Figure; Digit baker: Agility RoboticsFuturesEve with maker: 1X Technologies; Figure 02 fingers: Figure; Astro looking: Amazon; Astro spinning: Amazon; Astro and dog: Amazon; Atlas HD dance: Boston Dynamics; Digits with bins: Agility Robotics; Stretch stretched: Hello Robot; Stretch serving drink: Hello Robot; π0 laundry: Physical Intelligence; Stretch kitchen: Hello Robot; Stretch dogs: Hello Robot; Atlas working: Boston Dynamics; Helper robot cooking: iStock; Helper robot dishwashing and ironing: Getty Images; Three Rosies: Mary Evans/AF Archive/Everett Collection; Roomba: iRobotCreditsRoomba: iRobot; C-3PO: Vince Bucci/Getty Images; R2-D2: Collection Christophel/AlamyAbout IEEEContact & SupportAccessibilityNondiscrimination PolicyTermsIEEE Privacy PolicyCookie PreferencesAd Privacy Options© Copyright 2026 IEEE — All rights reserved. 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The progression of robotics is characterized by an ongoing pursuit of humanoid robots capable of performing domestic tasks, moving from science fiction aspirations to tangible engineering challenges. Early concepts, such as the domestic helper robot Rosie from The Jetsons, established the initial vision of robots integrating into human environments, yet the realization of this dream is complicated by significant engineering hurdles. The development history of humanoid robots, exemplified by Honda's Asimo, illustrates the complexity involved, showing that achieving realistic, flexible performance requires decades of incremental development, proving that simply creating a humanoid form does not equate to functional autonomy in the real world.

The central challenge facing humanoid robotics lies in overcoming the physical and cognitive limitations required for real-world interaction. Several key areas define this challenge. Hardware development is constrained by the need for sophisticated systems, requiring advanced sensors, computing systems, batteries, and actuators. While systems like Aila incorporate sensors for environmental perception and computation utilizing the Robot Operating System, the actuators remain a bottleneck; advanced actuators are needed for complex movements, but current solutions often involve bulky, expensive components. Researchers are exploring alternatives, such as direct-drive motors and cable-driven actuators, alongside novel bioinspired designs to achieve greater dexterity and safety, as demonstrated by systems like AMBIDEX.

The aesthetic and psychological dimension of humanoid robots is encapsulated by the Uncanny Valley phenomenon, first proposed by Masahiro Mori. This concept describes the unsettling negative reaction elicited by robots that are nearly humanlike but imperfectly so, as their resemblance plunges the observer into a zone of unease rather than positive connection. Research into this area involves studying lifelike androids, such as Geminoid HI-1 and others, to understand the boundaries of human-robot interaction. This focus underscores the philosophical question of why humanoids are designed to resemble people, relating to their potential role in collaboration and inhabiting human spaces.

The integration of artificial intelligence is revolutionizing the path toward solving these complex problems. The goal of robot learning algorithms is to enable robots to learn tasks under varying conditions, requiring them to adapt and improvise as humans do. Generative AI is electrifying robotics by offering pathways to solve notoriously difficult problems, such as grasping arbitrary objects or learning complex manipulation tasks. Training these models often involves gathering vast amounts of data, either through human teleoperation or through simulation environments, as demonstrated by initiatives like NVIDIA’s Project GR00T. The aspiration is to develop a general-purpose AI model that can possess the adaptability required for real-world success.

Current progress is demonstrated by a competitive landscape where various companies and research groups are developing advanced humanoids. Contenders include those from Boston Dynamics, which focuses on highly agile robots like Atlas, and Agility Robotics, which emphasizes robust legged locomotion with robots like Digit. Other key players include Tesla, which leverages its expertise in battery technology and AI for mobile systems, and entities like Apptronik, which focus on manufacturability for humanoid designs. Furthermore, specialized entities like Fourier Intelligence are developing humanoid platforms tailored for specific applications, such as healthcare robotics.

The immediate future for these robots is likely divided by the rate of technological advancement. One trajectory involves small advances in hardware and software, leading to robots like Amazon's Astro, which can navigate autonomously but are primarily deployed in industrial settings. Another path involves moderate advancements where new actuator designs and improved AI learning make robots capable of performing useful, mobile manipulation tasks, such as household chores like cleaning or food preparation, through mobile manipulators. The most ambitious future, however, requires massive breakthroughs in both hardware and intelligence, where robots will possess the fine motor skills and adaptability necessary to safely and effectively handle varied household environments, necessitating rigorous safety protocols for operation in homes.